Easy2Siksha
GNDU Question Paper-2023
BA 1
st
Semester
PSYCHOLOGY
(Basic Psychological Processes)
Time Allowed: Three Hours Maximum Marks: 75
Note: Attempt Five questions in all, selecting at least One question from each section. The
Fifth question may be attempted from any section. All questions carry equal marks.
SECTION-A
1. Define Psychology and explain the Survey Method of studying Psychology.
2. Write detailed note on Behaviourism School.
SECTION-B
3. Define Motivation. Explain biological motives.
4. Explain the James Lange theory of emotion.
SECTION-C
5. Define learning. Explain its types of learning.
6. Discuss the classical conditioning theory with example of experiments.
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SECTION-D
7. Differentiate between Parametric and Non-parametric Statistics.
8. Calculate Mode from the following data:
Scores
F
90-94
1
85-89
4
80-84
2
75-79
8
70-74
6
65-69
9
60-64
14
55-59
6
50-54
4
45-49
3
40-44
3
N=60
Easy2Siksha
GNDU Answer Paper-2023
BA 1
st
Semester
PSYCHOLOGY
(Basic Psychological Processes)
Time Allowed: Three Hours Maximum Marks: 75
Note: Attempt Five questions in all, selecting at least One question from each section. The
Fifth question may be attempted from any section. All questions carry equal marks.
SECTION-A
1. Define Psychology and explain the Survey Method of studying Psychology.
Ans: Definition of Psychology and the Survey Method of Studying Psychology
Introduction: What is Psychology?
Imagine you are sitting quietly in a park, observing people. One person is laughing loudly on
a phone call, another is walking nervously back and forth, while someone else is peacefully
reading a book. Now think—what makes them act the way they do? What’s going on in their
minds? Why do people behave differently in the same environment?
This curiosity is the very heart of psychology—the scientific study of the mind and behavior.
Psychology helps us understand how people think, feel, and act. It explains the reasons
behind human emotions, motivations, habits, decisions, and even dreams. Whether it is
happiness, stress, learning, or relationships—psychology covers it all.
Let’s now understand this in a formal and deeper way.
Meaning and Definition of Psychology
The word “Psychology” comes from two Greek words:
• “Psyche” meaning soul or mind
• “Logos” meaning study or science
So, psychology originally meant the study of the soul, but today, it is more accurately
defined as:
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“Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.”
This definition includes two key elements:
• Behavior – What we can observe, like walking, talking, eating, sleeping, etc.
• Mental Processes – Internal experiences like thinking, remembering, feeling,
imagining, and dreaming.
Let’s simplify this with an example:
Suppose your friend suddenly starts crying during a conversation. As a psychology student,
you may wonder:
Why is she crying?
What is she thinking?
Did something trigger this emotion?
Is she feeling overwhelmed or recalling a bad memory?
A psychologist doesn’t just guess the answers. Instead, they use scientific methods to find
real, reliable, and repeatable answers. One such important method used by psychologists is
the Survey Method, which we will explore in detail next.
The Survey Method in Psychology
What is a Survey?
A survey is like asking a large group of people a set of specific questions to find out what
they think, feel, or do about something.
Imagine you want to know how many students in your college suffer from exam stress. It’s
impossible to sit and talk with every student in detail. So, you create a questionnaire, give it
to a large number of students, and then collect their answers. That’s a survey!
In psychology, the survey method is widely used to collect data from large groups of people
in a short time.
Definition of the Survey Method
The survey method is a research technique in which information is gathered from people by
asking them questions through interviews or questionnaires.
It helps psychologists to understand:
• Public opinions
• Human behaviors
• Attitudes
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• Beliefs
• Feelings
• Social trends
Types of Survey Methods
There are two main types of survey techniques:
1. Questionnaire Method
A set of written questions is prepared.
Participants fill out the questionnaire on paper or online.
• Example: Google Forms or printed feedback forms.
Advantage: It’s fast and can reach thousands of people.
2. Interview Method
• A researcher personally asks questions to the participant.
• Can be face-to-face, by phone, or via video calls.
• Allows more in-depth responses and clarifications.
Steps in Conducting a Psychological Survey
Identify the Research Topic
Example: "Do college students experience anxiety due to social media?"
Select the Target Group (Sample)
You cannot study everyone, so choose a representative group (e.g., 200 college students
from different departments).
Prepare the Survey Tool
Create a list of questions (open-ended or multiple-choice).
Distribute the Survey
Use email, handouts, or interviews to collect data.
Collect and Analyze Responses
Review answers to find common patterns and results.
Interpret the Data
Draw conclusions: e.g., “65% of students feel anxious after using Instagram for over 2 hours
a day.”
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Advantages of the Survey Method
Large Reach: Can gather data from hundreds or thousands of people.
Cost-effective: Especially online surveys, which are almost free.
Time-saving: Faster than observation or experimental methods.
Useful for Attitudes and Opinions: Great for finding out what people believe or feel.
Limitations of the Survey Method
People May Lie: Participants may not always give honest answers.
Misinterpretation: Questions may be misunderstood.
No Depth: Unlike interviews, questionnaires may lack deep insights.
Sampling Errors: If the sample isn’t diverse, results won’t be accurate for the whole
population.
Example of a Real-Life Psychological Survey
Let’s take a famous example:
The World Happiness Report – This annual survey asks people around the world how happy
they feel. It collects data on income, freedom, social support, and life satisfaction.
Psychologists analyze this data to understand global mental well-being, compare countries,
and make recommendations for improving happiness.
Conclusion: Psychology and Surveys Together
Psychology is not just theory—it’s practical, relatable, and scientific. By using the survey
method, psychologists can understand the minds of large groups of people without needing
to study each one in depth.
In today’s digital age, surveys are more powerful than ever. Online tools like Google Forms,
SurveyMonkey, and social media polls make it easy to collect real-time data from people
worldwide.
For university students like you, understanding the survey method is crucial—not just as a
topic, but also as a tool you may use in future research projects or even in your daily life
decisions.
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Key Takeaways
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
The Survey Method is used to collect data through questionnaires and interviews.
It helps understand attitudes, opinions, feelings, and trends in a large population.
Though it’s quick and affordable, it also has some limitations like dishonesty or superficial
responses.
2. Write detailed note on Behaviourism School.
Ans: Behaviourism School: A Detailed Note
Imagine you are watching a young child. Every time the child touches something hot, he
pulls his hand back and cries. After a few times, he stops touching hot objects altogether.
Why? Because he has learned from his experiences. This learning from the environment,
reactions, and consequences is the heart of the Behaviourism School in psychology.
Let’s now dive into the full story of Behaviourism—how it started, what it says, who were its
main supporters, and how it impacts our understanding of human behavior.
What is Behaviourism?
Behaviourism is a school of thought in psychology that focuses only on observable
behaviors. It believes that everything we do—talking, walking, eating, studying—is a result
of learning from the environment. It rejects inner mental thoughts like feelings, memories,
or intentions, because they can’t be seen or measured directly.
In short, Behaviourism = Behavior + Environment + Learning.
Core Idea of Behaviourism
The central idea of Behaviourism is simple:
“Behavior is learned from the environment through conditioning.”
This means our actions are not controlled by our thoughts or feelings, but by stimuli
(triggers) in the environment and the responses (reactions) we learn.
It’s like training a dog to sit when you say “sit” and give it a treat. The dog learns to connect
your word (stimulus) with the treat (reward) and starts behaving accordingly.
Origin and Background
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Behaviourism started in the early 20th century as a reaction against the earlier school of
psychology called Structuralism and Functionalism, which focused on the mind and
introspection (thinking about your thoughts). But behaviourists believed that only
observable behavior can be studied scientifically.
So they removed the focus from the “mind” and shifted it to “behavior”.
Founders and Major Thinkers
1. John B. Watson – The Father of Behaviourism
Watson introduced behaviourism in 1913 with his famous paper "Psychology as the
Behaviorist Views It." He believed that humans are born as a blank slate (tabula rasa) and
that all behavior is learned from the environment.
Famous Experiment: Little Albert Experiment
Watson conditioned a baby, Albert, to fear a white rat by associating it with a loud noise.
This showed how fear (a behavior) can be learned.
2. Ivan Pavlov – Classical Conditioning
Pavlov was a Russian physiologist, not a psychologist, but his work deeply influenced
behaviourism.
Famous Experiment: Pavlov’s Dogs
Pavlov trained dogs to salivate (produce saliva) when they heard a bell. He did this by
ringing a bell every time the dog was fed. After a while, the bell alone made the dog
salivate—even without food. This was called classical conditioning.
3. B.F. Skinner – Operant Conditioning
Skinner extended Watson’s ideas and introduced a more complex form of learning called
Operant Conditioning. He said behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments.
Famous Concept: Skinner Box
In this box, rats learned to press a lever to get food (reward) or avoid a shock (punishment).
This showed how consequences influence future behavior.
4. Edward Thorndike – Law of Effect
Thorndike developed the Law of Effect, which says:
“Behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes are more likely to be repeated, and those
followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely to be repeated.”
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He also did experiments with cats in puzzle boxes, where they learned to escape faster with
practice.
Key Concepts in Behaviourism
Let’s explore the two main types of learning in Behaviourism:
1. Classical Conditioning (by Pavlov)
Stimulus → Response
Learning by association.
Example: You feel hungry when you hear the school lunch bell.
Terms to remember:
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Food (naturally causes response)
• Unconditioned Response (UCR): Salivation (natural response)
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Bell (learned trigger)
• Conditioned Response (CR): Salivation to bell (learned response)
2. Operant Conditioning (by Skinner)
Learning through consequences.
Behavior is strengthened or weakened by what follows.
Types of Reinforcement & Punishment:
Type
Meaning
Example
Positive Reinforcement
Adding something good
Giving a chocolate for homework
Negative Reinforcement
Removing something bad
No homework if you behave well
Positive Punishment
Adding something bad
Extra homework for being late
Negative Punishment
Taking away something good
No playtime for misbehaving
Applications of Behaviourism
Education
Rewards and punishments used in classrooms.
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Teachers use positive reinforcement (like stars, praise) to encourage good behavior.
Parenting
Parents use techniques to shape children’s behavior—rewarding good actions, discouraging
bad ones.
• Therapy (Behavior Therapy)
• Used in treating phobias and anxiety.
• Techniques like Systematic Desensitization (step-by-step exposure) help people
unlearn fears.
Advertising
Brands associate products with emotions (e.g., happiness, success), making us more likely to
buy them.
Criticisms of Behaviourism
Despite its success, Behaviourism is criticized for being too narrow.
Ignores the Mind
• It doesn’t consider thoughts, feelings, and inner experiences.
Too Mechanical
• Treats humans like machines that only respond to external triggers.
No Free Will
• Suggests all behavior is controlled by environment—not personal choice or thinking.
• Because of these limitations, new approaches like Cognitive Psychology emerged to
study mental processes.
Legacy and Importance
Even though Behaviourism doesn’t explain everything about human behavior, it brought
psychology closer to science. It showed that behavior can be observed, measured, and
changed, which was a big achievement.
Today, many techniques used in education, therapy, business, and technology are inspired
by Behaviourism. For example, apps give rewards for regular use (like learning streaks in
Duolingo), which is operant conditioning in action!
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Conclusion
The Behaviourism School changed the way we look at learning and behavior. It taught us
that environment shapes us, and that we can use scientific methods to understand and
change behavior. From Pavlov’s dogs to Skinner’s box, the Behaviourists proved that
behavior isn’t magic—it’s learned.
In our everyday life, we constantly respond to rewards, punishments, habits, and
experiences. Understanding behaviourism helps us realize why we do what we do—and
how we can change it.
SECTION-B
3. Define Motivation. Explain biological motives.
Ans: Motivation and Biological Motives
(A simple and meaningful explanation for university students)
Understanding the Concept of Motivation: A Story Begins
Imagine it’s a cold winter morning. Your alarm rings at 6 AM. You don’t want to get out of
bed — it’s warm and cozy. But you think about your goals — maybe you have a class to
attend, a project to finish, or a dream of becoming something great in life. That inner force
that makes you get up, push through laziness, and move towards your goals — that’s
motivation.
Motivation is like the fuel in a car — without it, no matter how good the car is, it won't
move. Similarly, no matter how talented or capable we are, we need motivation to take
action and achieve our goals.
Definition of Motivation
In psychological terms, motivation refers to the process that initiates, directs, and sustains
behavior toward a goal. It is what causes us to act — whether it is getting a glass of water
when we are thirsty or studying for an exam to pass a course.
Academic Definition:
“Motivation is an internal process that makes a person move toward a goal. It is driven by
needs, desires, and goals, whether conscious or unconscious.”
Components of Motivation
Motivation has three basic components:
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1. Activation – The decision to initiate a behavior (e.g., enrolling in a course).
2. Persistence – The continued effort toward a goal even when obstacles are present
(e.g., studying even when you’re tired).
3. Intensity – The level of concentration and energy that one puts into achieving a goal
(e.g., working harder before exams).
Types of Motivation
There are two main types of motivation:
1. Intrinsic Motivation
This comes from within. You do something because you enjoy it or find it meaningful. For
example, painting because you love art, not for a prize.
2. Extrinsic Motivation
This comes from outside. You do something because of external rewards or to avoid
punishment. For example, studying to get good grades or to avoid failing.
Biological Motives: The Natural Forces Driving Us
Now, let’s talk about a very important category of motivation — biological motives.
Biological motives are those that are essential for our survival. These are the natural, inborn
drives that keep us alive and functioning. Just like how your phone sends a “low battery”
alert, your body gives signals when it needs something — these signals create biological
motives.
Key Point:
Biological motives arise from the body’s internal state of imbalance and work to restore
balance (called homeostasis).
Let’s look at some important biological motives, one by one, with examples.
1. Hunger Motivation
Imagine you’ve been working on an assignment all day and forgot to eat. Slowly, your
stomach starts to growl, and you feel weak. That feeling — the need for food — is hunger
motivation.
How it works:
• The body monitors blood sugar levels.
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• When the level drops, the brain (especially the hypothalamus) triggers the feeling of
hunger.
• You are motivated to find and eat food.
• After eating, the body regains energy and balance is restored.
2. Thirst Motivation
Similar to hunger, when your body lacks water, it gives signals — dry mouth, headache, and
tiredness.
How it works:
• The body monitors fluid balance.
• When water levels are low, the hypothalamus in the brain detects it.
• It motivates you to drink water.
• Once hydrated, the urge disappears.
3. Sleep Motivation
Ever stayed up late watching movies and then struggled to stay awake in class? That strong
desire to sleep is sleep motivation.
Sleep is necessary to recharge the brain, repair body tissues, and maintain mental health.
Lack of sleep can affect memory, mood, and performance. The body naturally builds up
sleep pressure and releases melatonin to make us sleepy.
4. Temperature Regulation
If you step outside on a freezing day, your body shivers. When it’s hot, you sweat. This
happens because the body is motivated to keep its internal temperature stable (around
37°C).
This biological motive ensures that we maintain a safe body temperature, motivating
behaviors like wearing warm clothes or drinking cool water.
5. Pain Avoidance
Pain is an important biological signal. It tells us something is wrong. If you accidentally touch
something hot, your immediate reaction is to pull your hand away — that’s pain avoidance
motivation.
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The body motivates you to protect yourself from harm. It’s a survival mechanism.
6. Sexual Motivation
Sexual motivation is tied to reproduction. It ensures the survival of the species. Unlike
hunger or thirst, sexual drive is not essential for individual survival but is important for the
continuation of life.
It is influenced by hormones like testosterone and estrogen, as well as psychological and
social factors.
7. Maternal Motivation (Parental Drive)
In humans and animals, there is a strong biological motive to care for offspring. A mother’s
instinct to protect and nurture her child is partly biological. It ensures that the child survives
and grows.
Summary of Biological Motives
Biological Motive
Purpose
Hunger
To maintain energy and nutrition
Thirst
To maintain water balance
Sleep
To rest and restore the body
Temperature Regulation
To maintain body temperature
Pain Avoidance
To protect the body from harm
Sexual Drive
To ensure reproduction
Maternal Motivation
To protect and nurture offspring
Final Thoughts: Why Are Biological Motives Important?
Biological motives are like the default settings in our system — they operate automatically
to ensure survival and well-being. Without them, we wouldn’t eat, drink, sleep, or stay safe.
They are the foundation on which higher motives (like ambition, love, achievement) are
built.
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Even when we try to focus on goals like getting good marks or building a career, these
biological needs silently influence our behavior. If you’re hungry or tired, it’s hard to
concentrate — which shows how deeply biological motives are connected to all aspects of
life.
Conclusion
To sum up, motivation is the internal force that drives all our actions, whether it’s to satisfy
a need, avoid pain, or reach a goal. Biological motives are the most basic and essential,
coming from inside the body to keep us alive and healthy.
Understanding these motives helps us understand why we do what we do, from eating
lunch to sleeping at night. And once we understand motivation, we can learn to channel it
to lead better, more productive lives — both academically and personally.
4. Explain the James Lange theory of emotion.
Ans: Introduction: What Are Emotions?
Before we dive into the James-Lange theory of emotion, let's take a moment to understand
what emotions actually are.
Imagine you're walking in a dark forest. Suddenly, you hear a strange growl behind you.
Your heart starts racing, your muscles tighten, and your hands begin to sweat. You quickly
turn and run. Now stop and ask yourself—When did you feel fear?
Most of us would say, "I felt afraid, so I ran." But James and Lange had a different answer.
They believed that we run first, and then we feel afraid because we are running. This is the
foundation of the James-Lange theory of emotion.
Let’s now understand this idea step-by-step, like a simple story.
Who Were James and Lange?
• William James was an American psychologist and philosopher, often called the
"father of American psychology."
• Carl Lange was a Danish physiologist and psychologist.
Although they worked independently, both came up with a similar idea around the late
1800s. So, the theory was named after both of them.
The Basic Idea of the James-Lange Theory
The James-Lange theory of emotion says:
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Emotions are the result of physical changes in our body. We don’t cry because we are sad;
we feel sad because we cry.
This is completely opposite to what most people believe. Usually, we think:
• Event → Emotion → Bodily Reaction
(e.g., I see a bear → I feel fear → My heart races)
But James-Lange say:
• Event → Bodily Reaction → Emotion
(e.g., I see a bear → My heart races and I tremble → I feel fear)
Let’s understand it better with a few real-life examples.
A Simple Story to Understand It
Imagine you're a student walking alone to your university hostel late at night. Suddenly, a
street dog starts barking loudly and running toward you.
Your body reacts instantly—you start running, your heartbeat increases, your breathing
becomes fast, and you start sweating.
Now according to James-Lange:
• These physical changes happen first.
• Then your brain interprets these changes as fear.
So, it's not the dog that directly caused your fear. Instead, it's your body's reaction to the
dog that caused you to feel afraid.
The Steps in the Process
Let’s break down this theory in simple steps:
1. Stimulus – Something happens in the environment (like a barking dog).
2. Perception – You notice the dog.
3. Bodily Response – Your body reacts (heartbeat increases, muscles tense).
4. Emotion Experienced – You feel fear as a result of your body’s reaction.
So according to this theory, emotion is the mind's interpretation of bodily responses.
Another Example: Getting Embarrassed
Let’s say you're giving a presentation in class. You forget your lines. Your classmates start
giggling.
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What happens next?
• Your face becomes red.
• Your body feels warm.
• Your hands shake slightly.
Then you feel embarrassed.
James-Lange theory says: You feel embarrassed because your body reacted in that way, not
the other way around.
Key Concepts of the Theory
1. Bodily Changes Are Important
• Emotions depend on your physical reactions.
• If there are no physical changes, you won’t feel the emotion.
2. Each Emotion Has a Unique Pattern
• According to this theory, different emotions are caused by different bodily
responses.
• For example:
o Fear = fast heartbeat, shaking
o Anger = clenched fists, tight muscles
o Sadness = tears, drooping shoulders
3. Emotions Come After Reactions
• This is the most unique idea. The emotion is not the cause, but the result of the
body's action.
Support for the Theory
Some studies support this theory. For example:
• People with spinal cord injuries (who can’t feel parts of their body) often report
feeling weaker emotions, which supports the idea that body signals are important
for feeling emotions.
• Also, when people are asked to smile (even if they are not happy), they often start
feeling a little better. This is called the facial feedback hypothesis and supports
James-Lange’s idea.
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Criticism of the Theory
Not everyone agrees with James-Lange. Some psychologists believe:
1. Emotions can happen too quickly
o Sometimes we feel emotions instantly, even before we notice any body
reaction.
2. Same body reaction, different emotions
o Your heart can beat fast when you're excited, scared, or in love. So how can
the body alone tell you what emotion you’re feeling?
3. Cognition matters too
o Other theories (like the Schachter-Singer theory) say that we also think about
the situation before we feel an emotion. Just body reactions are not enough.
James-Lange vs Other Theories
Theory
Main Idea
James-Lange
Emotion comes after the body reacts
Cannon-Bard
Body and emotion happen at the same time
Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor)
Emotion = Body reaction + Thinking (labeling the situation)
Conclusion
The James-Lange theory of emotion was a revolutionary idea that changed how we think
about feelings. It suggested that emotions are not the starting point, but the result of how
our body responds to events.
This theory made people realize that emotions are not just in the brain—they are deeply
connected to our physical body.
Though it has faced criticism and has been modified by later theories, the James-Lange
theory is still one of the most important stepping stones in the study of human emotions.
For university students, it’s essential to understand this theory because it lays the
foundation for modern emotional psychology.
Next time you feel your heart racing or your hands shaking, remember—according to James
and Lange, you're not feeling this because you're afraid… you're afraid because you're
feeling this.
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SECTION-C
5. Define learning. Explain its types of learning.
Ans: What is Learning?
Imagine you are a baby, just a few months old. You don’t know how to speak, walk, eat
properly, or even recognize people. As days go by, you start recognizing your mother’s
voice, you begin to understand smiles, you learn to crawl, then walk, and finally, you start
speaking your first words.
This gradual change in your behavior through experience is called “Learning.”
Definition of Learning
Learning is the process through which we gain new knowledge, skills, attitudes, or values by
experiencing things, observing others, or practicing over time. It results in a relatively
permanent change in behavior or understanding.
In simpler words:
"Learning is the way we grow mentally, emotionally, and socially through our experiences."
Why is Learning Important?
Let’s understand this through an example:
Imagine Rahul, a university student, who didn’t know how to cook. One day, he watched a
YouTube video on how to make Maggi. He followed the steps and made it himself. The next
day, he added vegetables, then next time cheese. With each attempt, he got better. That is
learning in action.
Learning is the foundation of our:
• Education
• Personality development
• Decision-making skills
• Career growth
• Social behavior
It helps us solve problems, adapt to new environments, and grow as individuals.
Types of Learning
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Psychologists and educators have studied learning deeply and found that learning happens
in different ways. Let’s now explore the major types of learning with relatable stories and
examples:
1. Classical Conditioning (Learning by Association)
Story Example:
A dog named Bruno starts wagging his tail whenever he hears the sound of the cupboard
door opening because he associates it with food.
Explanation:
This type of learning was discovered by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian scientist. He did an
experiment with dogs. Every time he rang a bell and gave food, the dog would salivate.
Later, even when he rang the bell without giving food, the dog still salivated.
This showed that the dog had learned to associate the sound of the bell with food.
In Human Life:
• A student may feel anxious every time the exam bell rings, associating it with stress.
• We may feel hungry when we smell popcorn at the movies.
This type of learning is automatic and unconscious.
2. Operant Conditioning (Learning through Rewards and Punishments)
Story Example:
A child cleans his room and gets chocolate. Next time, he cleans it again to get more
chocolate. But if he makes a mess and is scolded, he avoids doing it again.
Explanation:
This idea was studied by B.F. Skinner. In this learning type, behavior is shaped by
consequences:
• If the outcome is pleasant (reward) → behavior increases.
• If the outcome is unpleasant (punishment) → behavior decreases.
In Real Life:
• Employees work harder if they get a bonus.
• Students avoid cheating if they fear punishment.
Operant conditioning is based on choice and is voluntary.
3. Observational Learning (Learning by Watching Others)
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Story Example:
Meena watches her elder sister tie shoelaces. After a few days, Meena tries to tie her own
shoes without being taught directly.
Explanation:
Also known as Modeling or Social Learning, this was explained by Albert Bandura. He
showed that children imitate what they see, especially if the model is someone they admire
(like parents, teachers, or celebrities).
In Real Life:
• We learn dance steps by watching videos.
• We pick up habits from friends.
This learning is very common in children and depends on attention and memory.
4. Cognitive Learning (Learning by Understanding)
Story Example:
Anita doesn’t just memorize math formulas. She tries to understand the logic behind them.
As a result, she can solve even tricky problems easily.
Explanation:
Cognitive learning focuses on thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, and remembering. It is
not just about trial and error or rewards but about using the brain to understand things
deeply.
It includes:
• Insight learning (sudden understanding)
• Learning through mental maps
• Memory and recall
In Real Life:
• Solving puzzles
• Studying subjects with logic and reasoning
• Planning a travel route using a mental map
This is a higher-order learning useful in academics and professions.
5. Experiential Learning (Learning by Doing)
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Story Example:
Ravi wants to become a photographer. Instead of just reading books, he takes his camera
and goes out every day to practice clicking photos.
Explanation:
This type of learning involves hands-on experiences. We learn best when we are actively
involved rather than just listening or watching.
Proposed by David Kolb, this learning cycle includes:
1. Concrete Experience (doing it)
2. Reflective Observation (thinking about it)
3. Abstract Conceptualization (learning from it)
4. Active Experimentation (trying again in new ways)
In Real Life:
• Internships and practical labs
• Group projects and role-plays
• Sports and fieldwork
Experiential learning is very effective in skill-based education.
6. Latent Learning (Learning without Showing It Immediately)
Story Example:
Neha watches her dad fix a car engine but never tries it herself. One day, when her scooter
breaks down, she surprisingly remembers everything and fixes it!
Explanation:
Latent learning is when we learn something but do not use or show it immediately. It stays
hidden until a situation demands it.
In Real Life:
• A student who watches debates may never participate, but in an interview, suddenly
speaks fluently.
• We learn routes by watching others drive, but only use them when we drive alone.
7. Habituation (Learning to Ignore Repeated Stimuli)
Story Example:
At first, Rahul found the train noise near his hostel disturbing. But after a few weeks, he
doesn’t notice it anymore.
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Explanation:
Habituation is a simple form of learning where we stop responding to a stimulus that is
repeated and harmless.
In Real Life:
• Ignoring the ticking sound of a clock
• Not reacting to repeated phone vibrations
It helps us focus only on important stimuli.
Conclusion
Learning is not limited to schools or universities — it is a lifelong journey. From walking and
talking to driving a car or learning coding, every action we master is a result of learning.
The types of learning — from classical conditioning to experiential learning — show us how
different methods shape our behavior and knowledge. Understanding these types not only
helps us become better students but also better teachers, leaders, and humans.
As university students, when we become aware of how learning happens, we can use the
right techniques to improve our study habits, memory, and overall success in life.
6. Discuss the classical conditioning theory with example of experiments.
Ans: Introduction: What Is Classical Conditioning?
Imagine you're sitting in a room, and every time a bell rings, someone brings you your
favorite snack—say, chocolate. After several days, the bell rings again, but this time no
chocolate comes. Still, your mouth starts to water. Why? Because your brain has learned to
associate the bell with chocolate. This simple connection between two things—a sound and
food—is the basic idea behind Classical Conditioning.
Classical Conditioning is a learning theory developed by a Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov.
It explains how living beings (humans and animals) can learn to associate one stimulus with
another, leading to a change in behavior. This theory has laid the foundation for modern
behaviorist psychology.
Origin of Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Famous Dog Experiment
To truly understand this theory, let’s go back to the early 1900s in Russia.
Ivan Pavlov, a physiologist, was not originally studying psychology. He was researching the
digestive systems of dogs. During his experiment, he noticed something unusual. Every time
his lab assistant entered the room to feed the dogs, the dogs started salivating—even if the
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assistant had no food. This triggered Pavlov’s curiosity. Why would the dogs start salivating
just by seeing the assistant?
So, Pavlov decided to dig deeper.
The Classical Conditioning Experiment: Step by Step
Pavlov designed a simple yet powerful experiment that became legendary in psychology.
Step 1: Natural Reaction (Before Conditioning)
• Food (Stimulus) → Dog Salivates (Response)
Here, food naturally causes salivation. This is a natural reflex, not learned.
• The food is called the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) because it causes a response
automatically.
• The salivation is called the Unconditioned Response (UCR) because it happens
naturally.
Step 2: Adding a Neutral Stimulus
Pavlov then introduced a neutral stimulus—a sound like a bell.
• Bell (Neutral Stimulus) → No salivation.
The dog does not react to the bell on its own.
Step 3: Conditioning Begins
Now, Pavlov started ringing the bell just before he presented the food to the dog. He
repeated this several times:
• Bell + Food → Dog Salivates
After several repetitions, the dog began to associate the bell with the food.
Step 4: After Conditioning
Finally, Pavlov rang the bell without giving any food.
• Bell (Now a Conditioned Stimulus) → Dog Salivates (Now a Conditioned Response)
The dog had learned something new! Now, the bell alone was enough to make the dog
salivate. The bell, which was once neutral, became a Conditioned Stimulus (CS), and the
salivation became a Conditioned Response (CR).
Key Terms and Concepts in Classical Conditioning
Let’s break down the key concepts in simple words:
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1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS):
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response. (e.g., food)
2. Unconditioned Response (UCR):
A natural reaction to the UCS. (e.g., salivation when seeing food)
3. Neutral Stimulus (NS):
A stimulus that does not initially trigger any response. (e.g., bell)
4. Conditioned Stimulus (CS):
A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, triggers a learned
response. (e.g., bell after training)
5. Conditioned Response (CR):
A learned response to the conditioned stimulus. (e.g., salivation at the sound of the
bell)
A Real-Life Example: Students and Exam Anxiety
Let’s apply this theory to your life as a student.
• Imagine every time you sit for an exam (UCS), you feel anxious (UCR).
• Before the exam, the school bell rings (NS).
• Over time, your brain connects the sound of the bell (CS) with the anxiety of the
exam (CR).
• Eventually, you may feel nervous (CR) just by hearing the bell (CS), even when there
is no exam!
This shows how our minds can link unrelated things (like a bell) to emotional reactions (like
anxiety) through repeated experiences.
Other Experiments Based on Classical Conditioning
1. Little Albert Experiment by John B. Watson
In 1920, psychologist John B. Watson wanted to see if classical conditioning worked on
humans. He experimented on a baby named Little Albert.
• Albert liked a white rat and played with it. The rat was a neutral stimulus.
• Watson started making a loud noise (UCS) every time Albert touched the rat.
• The loud noise scared Albert (UCR).
• After a few repetitions, Albert began crying when he saw the rat—even with no
noise.
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• Now, the rat had become a Conditioned Stimulus (CS), and Albert’s crying was the
Conditioned Response (CR).
Later, Albert also feared other white furry things like rabbits and cotton, a phenomenon
known as stimulus generalization.
Important Concepts Related to Classical Conditioning
1. Acquisition
• The process of learning the association between the neutral stimulus and the
unconditioned stimulus. (e.g., bell + food)
2. Extinction
• If the conditioned stimulus (bell) is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned
stimulus (food), the conditioned response (salivation) fades away.
3. Spontaneous Recovery
• Sometimes, even after extinction, the response can reappear after some time when
the conditioned stimulus is presented again.
4. Generalization
• When similar stimuli (e.g., a different bell sound) also trigger the conditioned
response.
5. Discrimination
• Learning to respond only to a specific stimulus and not others. (e.g., salivating only
to a particular bell tone, not any sound)
Applications of Classical Conditioning in Daily Life
1. Education:
Teachers use positive reinforcement to make learning enjoyable. For example,
praising students (CS) leads to motivation (CR).
2. Advertising:
Companies use attractive visuals or music (CS) along with products to evoke positive
emotions (CR) in consumers.
3. Phobias and Fears:
Many irrational fears are the result of classical conditioning, like fear of dogs after a
bite.
4. Treatment of Disorders:
Therapies like Systematic Desensitization use classical conditioning to reduce
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phobias by slowly exposing a person to the feared object along with relaxation
techniques.
Conclusion
Classical Conditioning shows how our environment and repeated experiences shape our
behavior. From a dog salivating at a bell to a student feeling nervous before exams, this
theory explains how associations are built in our minds. Pavlov’s work opened the doors for
understanding not just animal behavior but also how human emotions, habits, and fears
develop.
As university students, knowing this theory can help you understand how learning and
emotional responses work. Whether you're studying psychology, education, or even
marketing, classical conditioning is a key concept that has powerful real-world applications.
SECTION-D
7. Differentiate between Parametric and Non-parametric Statistics.
Ans: Introduction:
Imagine you are trying to compare the average height of students in your class with
students from another class. Now suppose you want to know whether boys score better
than girls in math or whether people from different cities have different average incomes.
To answer such questions, statistics becomes your best friend.
But here’s the twist — statistics is divided into many types. Two major types of statistical
methods used in data analysis are Parametric and Non-parametric statistics. These two
might sound technical, but don’t worry — by the end of this explanation, you’ll understand
them like a pro!
Let’s dive into the world of parametric and non-parametric statistics using real-life
examples, and understand their meanings, uses, differences, and importance.
Understanding the Basic Concept:
What are Parametric Statistics?
Parametric statistics are statistical methods that assume certain things about the data.
Specifically, they assume:
• The data follows a known distribution (most commonly the normal distribution).
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• The data is measured on interval or ratio scales (meaning the numbers have real
meaning, like age, weight, height, etc.).
• The sample data is randomly selected and is large enough.
In simple words: Parametric tests work only when the data fits certain rules or patterns.
They are powerful but a bit “strict” about the data you feed them.
Examples of Parametric Tests:
• t-test (used to compare means)
• ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)
• Pearson Correlation
• Linear Regression
What are Non-Parametric Statistics?
Non-parametric statistics are the more flexible cousins of parametric statistics. They do not
make strict assumptions about the distribution of the data. They work well even when:
• The data is not normally distributed
• The sample size is small
• The data is ordinal (like rankings) or nominal (like categories)
In simple words: Non-parametric tests are less strict, more versatile, and work on a broader
range of data types, especially when the data doesn't fit the neat bell curve of a normal
distribution.
Examples of Non-Parametric Tests:
• Mann-Whitney U test
• Wilcoxon Signed-Rank test
• Kruskal-Wallis test
• Spearman Rank Correlation
• Chi-Square test
Story Style Explanation:
Let’s imagine two detectives – Detective Param (short for Parametric) and Detective Non-
Param (short for Non-parametric). They both solve mysteries (analyze data), but their
methods are different.
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Detective Param (Parametric Statistics):
Detective Param is well-trained and likes things to be perfect and organized. He only solves
cases (analyzes data) when:
• The case follows the rules (the data is normally distributed)
• There is enough evidence (large sample size)
• The details are accurate (data is numeric and continuous)
When these conditions are met, he is super fast and very accurate. He uses tools like t-tests
and ANOVA to crack the case.
But if the case doesn’t follow these rules, he feels confused and might make mistakes.
Detective Non-Param (Non-Parametric Statistics):
Detective Non-Param, on the other hand, is more flexible. He doesn't mind if:
• The clues are strange (data is not normally distributed)
• The case is based on ranks or categories (ordinal or nominal data)
• The evidence is limited (small sample sizes)
Even when the case is messy, he can still solve it — not as precisely as Detective Param, but
in a reliable way. He uses tests like Mann-Whitney and Chi-square.
Key Differences Between Parametric and Non-Parametric Statistics:
Aspect
Parametric Statistics
Non-Parametric Statistics
Assumptions
Assumes data follows a normal
distribution
No assumptions about data distribution
Data Type
Interval and ratio data (numerical)
Ordinal and nominal data (ranks,
categories)
Sample Size
Requires larger sample sizes
Works well with smaller samples
Precision
More powerful and precise (if
assumptions are met)
Less powerful but more flexible
Examples
t-test, ANOVA, Pearson correlation,
regression
Mann-Whitney U, Wilcoxon, Chi-
square, Kruskal-Wallis
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Aspect
Parametric Statistics
Non-Parametric Statistics
Use Case
When data is clean, numeric, and
well-behaved
When data is messy, small, or not
normal
Speed and
Simplicity
Faster and easier to compute with
large datasets
May require more steps, especially with
ranks
Example for Better Understanding:
Example 1: Student Exam Scores
Suppose you have exam scores of 100 students and want to check if boys and girls perform
equally.
• If the scores are normally distributed, you can use a parametric t-test.
• But if the scores are skewed or sample size is small, you use a non-parametric Mann-
Whitney U test.
Example 2: Customer Preferences
You are analyzing customer preferences about a product, rated as "Very Good", "Good",
"Average", and "Poor".
• Since these are categories (ordinal data), parametric tests cannot be used.
• You use a non-parametric Chi-square test to see if preferences differ among age
groups.
When to Use Which?
Use parametric statistics when:
• You are confident that your data is normally distributed
• You have a large sample size
• Your data is quantitative and continuous
Use non-parametric statistics when:
• Your data is not normal or skewed
• You have a small sample size
• Your data is ordinal, categorical, or ranked
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Summary in Simple Points:
• Parametric statistics need data that is normal, numeric, and large in size.
• Non-parametric statistics are more relaxed and can work on non-normal, small, or
categorical data.
• Parametric tests are more powerful, but only when their assumptions are met.
• Non-parametric tests are more robust when data is unusual, messy, or limited.
• Both are useful, and a good statistician knows when to use which.
Final Words:
As a university student, it’s important to remember that no method is better or worse. It all
depends on the situation, the data, and your objective.
Think of parametric statistics as a racing car — fast and effective on smooth tracks. Non-
parametric statistics are like a 4x4 jeep — they go slower but can handle rough terrain.
Depending on the “road” (your data), you choose the right vehicle!
By understanding both types of statistics, you’ll be equipped to analyze any kind of data
with confidence. Whether you're in sociology, economics, biology, or computer science —
these tools are essential in the age of data-driven decision-making.
8. Calculate Mode from the following data:
Scores
F
90-94
1
85-89
4
80-84
2
75-79
8
70-74
6
65-69
9
60-64
14
55-59
6
50-54
4
45-49
3
40-44
3
N=60
Ans: Introduction: Understanding Mode in Statistics
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Let’s imagine you're a university student in a class of 60 students. Your professor has
recently conducted a test and grouped the students' scores into different score ranges
(called class intervals) like 90–94, 85–89, and so on. Now the teacher wants to know the
mode, which is the most common score group — the score range where the maximum
number of students fall.
Just like how in a movie theater, the seat row with the most people is the most popular, in
statistics, the modal class is the class interval with the highest frequency.
But because the data is grouped, we need to calculate the mode using a special formula.
What is Mode?
In statistics, mode is one of the three main measures of central tendency — the other two
being mean and median.
• Mean is the average.
• Median is the middle value.
• Mode is the value that occurs most frequently.
In grouped data, we don’t know individual values — only how many data points fall into a
range. So we use a formula to estimate the mode.
Step-by-Step: Finding Mode in Grouped Data
We will follow these steps to calculate the mode:
Step 1: Identify the Modal Class
The modal class is the class interval with the highest frequency.
From the frequency table:
Scores
Frequency (F)
60–64
14 ← Highest frequency
So, the modal class is 60–64.
Step 2: Use the Mode Formula
For grouped data, the formula for Mode is:
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Where:
• L = lower boundary of modal class
• f1 = frequency of modal class
• f0 = frequency of the class before the modal class
• f2 = frequency of the class after the modal class
• h = class width
Step 3: Gather the Values
Let’s collect all the required values from the table.
• Modal class: 60–64
• L (lower boundary) = 59.5 (We subtract 0.5 to get the exact lower limit between
classes)
• h (class width) = 5 (For example, 60–64 → width = 64 - 59 = 5)
• f₁ (modal class frequency) = 14
• f₀ (frequency before modal class, i.e., 65–69) = 9
• f₂ (frequency after modal class, i.e., 55–59) = 6
Step 4: Apply the Formula
Now plug the values into the formula:
Let’s calculate step-by-step:
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Final Answer:
Mode = 61.42
This means the most common score in the test is approximately 61.42 marks, based on the
grouped data.
Real-Life Meaning of Mode
Let’s go back to our student story. You’re looking at how your classmates performed in a
test. The mode tells you what the majority of students roughly scored. So, if most students
scored between 60–64 marks, and the mode is 61.42, this helps the teacher understand
where the class is performing on average — not in terms of mean, but in terms of most
frequent performance.
For example:
• A shopkeeper would want to know which shirt size (S, M, L) is most commonly
bought — that’s mode.
• A school principal might want to know what attendance number occurs most often
in classrooms — again, mode.
Recap: Key Concepts
Let’s review what you’ve learned:
1. Mode = Most frequent value
2. In grouped data, you estimate mode using a formula
3. Identify:
o Modal class (highest frequency)
o Class width
o Frequencies before and after the modal class
4. Apply formula:
5. Solve step-by-step using clear values
Additional Tips for University Students
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• Always draw the table neatly and identify your modal class first.
• Be careful with boundaries: in grouped data, 60–64 becomes 59.5–64.5 when
applying formulas.
• Practice with different datasets to understand the concept better.
• Mode is not affected by extreme values (unlike the mean).
• If two classes have the same highest frequency, the data is bimodal.
Conclusion
Understanding how to calculate the mode from grouped data is not just a mathematical
exercise — it’s a way to make sense of large amounts of information. Whether you're a
student analyzing marks, a business owner checking customer trends, or a researcher
studying populations, knowing how to find the most common category is very useful.
In our example, by identifying the modal class and carefully applying the formula, we
calculated the mode to be 61.42. This shows how mathematics helps us summarize and
interpret real-world data in a meaningful way.
“This paper has been carefully prepared for educational purposes. If you notice any
mistakes or have suggestions, feel free to share your feedback.”
